Need for approval from others and face concerns as predictors of interpersonal conflict outcome in 29 cultural groups.

The extent to which culture moderates the effects of need for approval from others on a person's handling of interpersonal conflict was investigated. Students from 24 nations rated how they handled a recent interpersonal conflict, using measures derived from face-negotiation theory. Samples varied in the extent to which they were perceived as characterised by the cultural logics of dignity, honour, or face. It was hypothesised that the emphasis on harmony within face cultures would reduce the relevance of need for approval from others to face-negotiation concerns. Respondents rated their need for approval from others and how much they sought to preserve their own face and the face of the other party during the conflict. Need for approval was associated with concerns for both self-face and other-face. However, as predicted, the association between need for approval from others and concern for self-face was weaker where face logic was prevalent. Favourable conflict outcome was positively related to other-face and negatively related to self-face and to need for approval from others, but there were no significant interactions related to prevailing cultural logics. The results illustrate how particular face-threatening factors can moderate the distinctive face-concerns earlier found to characterise individualistic and collectivistic cultural groups.

Dimensions of Self-Construal Associated with Self-Esteem and Depression: A Study among Mexican Students / Dimensiones de La Auto-Definición Asociadas a la Autoestima y Depresión: Un Estudio en Estudiantes Mexicanos

Abstract The relationship between dimensions of self-construal and reported mood states is examined among two samples of Mexican students. Scales focused on seven different aspects of self-construal were employed. Respondents favored predominantly individualistic ways of describing themselves, but also scored high on connection to others. These effects were particularly strong among respondents from Tijuana when compared with those from Mexico City. Depressive mood state was predicted by higher self-reported connection with others, commitment to others, receptiveness to influence and behavioral variability. High self-esteem was predicted by higher self-reported consistency, self-orientation, self-direction and expressiveness.

Resumen La relación entre las dimensiones de la autodefinición y los estados de ánimo auto-reportados fueron evaluados en dos muestras de estudiantes mexicanos. Las escalas que se emplearon se enfocaron en siete diferentes aspectos de la auto-definición. Las respuestas de los participantes favorecieron predominantemente maneras individualistas de describirse a sí mismos, aunque también puntuaron alto en mediciones de conexión con los demás. Estos efectos son particularmente fuertes en los participantes de Tijuana cuando se comparan con los de Ciudad de México. Estados de ánimo depresivos fueron predichos por altos niveles auto-reportados de conexión con otros, compromiso con otros, receptividad a la influencia, y variabilidad conductual. Alta autoestima fue predicha por alta consistencia auto-reportada, auto-orientación, auto-dirección y expresividad.

Culture as perceived context: An exploration of the distinction between dignity, face and honor cultures / La cultura como contexto percibido: explorando la esencia de las culturas de honor, dignidad y autopresentación

Abstract: Researchers are making increasing use of the distinction between cultural logics emphasizing dignity, face, and honor. Students from eight nations including two from Latin America rated items tapping the extent to which they believed that most persons in their nation endorsed these types of mindset. Their ratings did not accord with prior beliefs as to which cultures exemplify dignity, face, and honor. However, the predictions that analytic cognition would be more prevalent in dignity cultures and contrasting types of holistic cognition would be more prevalent in face and honor cultures were supported. The belief that the logic of dignity was prevalent within one's nation was significantly associated with higher life satisfaction.

Resumen: Las investigaciones se están centrando cada vez con mayor énfasis en el uso de la distinción entre lógicas culturales, haciendo más hincapié en la dignidad, el mantenimiento del status quo estructural de una sociedad (face) y el honor. Estudiantes de 8 países, incluyendo 2 de América Latina, clasificaron elementos sobre cuán importante para la aceptación social es la dignidad o el honor para la mayoría de las personas en su nación. Las calificaciones obtenidas no concuerdan con creencias previas en cuanto a cuáles culturas promueven más la dignidad y/o el honor como guías de su comportamiento. Sin embargo, las predicciones de que los patrones de cognición analítica serían más frecuentes en culturas que se centran en la dignidad, y que los patrones de cognición holística serían más frecuentes en culturas que se centran en la honra fueron apoyadas. Adicionalmente, la creencia de que la lógica de la dignidad era frecuente dentro de cada nación se asoció significativamente con una mayor satisfacción de vida.

Individual and culture-level components of survey response styles: A multi-level analysis using cultural models of selfhood.

Variations in acquiescence and extremity pose substantial threats to the validity of cross-cultural research that relies on survey methods. Individual and cultural correlates of response styles when using 2 contrasting types of response mode were investigated, drawing on data from 55 cultural groups across 33 nations. Using 7 dimensions of self-other relatedness that have often been confounded within the broader distinction between independence and interdependence, our analysis yields more specific understandings of both individual- and culture-level variations in response style. When using a Likert-scale response format, acquiescence is strongest among individuals seeing themselves as similar to others, and where cultural models of selfhood favour harmony, similarity with others and receptiveness to influence. However, when using Schwartz's (2007) portrait-comparison response procedure, acquiescence is strongest among individuals seeing themselves as self-reliant but also connected to others, and where cultural models of selfhood favour self-reliance and self-consistency. Extreme responding varies less between the two types of response modes, and is most prevalent among individuals seeing themselves as self-reliant, and in cultures favouring self-reliance. As both types of response mode elicit distinctive styles of response, it remains important to estimate and control for style effects to ensure valid comparisons.

Beyond the 'east-west' dichotomy: Global variation in cultural models of selfhood.

Markus and Kitayama's (1991) theory of independent and interdependent self-construals had a major influence on social, personality, and developmental psychology by highlighting the role of culture in psychological processes. However, research has relied excessively on contrasts between North American and East Asian samples, and commonly used self-report measures of independence and interdependence frequently fail to show predicted cultural differences. We revisited the conceptualization and measurement of independent and interdependent self-construals in 2 large-scale multinational surveys, using improved methods for cross-cultural research. We developed (Study 1: N = 2924 students in 16 nations) and validated across cultures (Study 2: N = 7279 adults from 55 cultural groups in 33 nations) a new 7-dimensional model of self-reported ways of being independent or interdependent. Patterns of global variation support some of Markus and Kitayama's predictions, but a simple contrast between independence and interdependence does not adequately capture the diverse models of selfhood that prevail in different world regions. Cultural groups emphasize different ways of being both independent and interdependent, depending on individualism-collectivism, national socioeconomic development, and religious heritage. Our 7-dimensional model will allow future researchers to test more accurately the implications of cultural models of selfhood for psychological processes in diverse ecocultural contexts. (PsycINFO Database Record

Cultural bases for self-evaluation: seeing oneself positively in different cultural contexts.

Several theories propose that self-esteem, or positive self-regard, results from fulfilling the value priorities of one's surrounding culture. Yet, surprisingly little evidence exists for this assertion, and theories differ about whether individuals must personally endorse the value priorities involved. We compared the influence of four bases for self-evaluation (controlling one's life, doing one's duty, benefitting others, achieving social status) among 4,852 adolescents across 20 cultural samples, using an implicit, within-person measurement technique to avoid cultural response biases. Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses showed that participants generally derived feelings of self-esteem from all four bases, but especially from those that were most consistent with the value priorities of others in their cultural context. Multilevel analyses confirmed that the bases of positive self-regard are sustained collectively: They are predictably moderated by culturally normative values but show little systematic variation with personally endorsed values.

The Inaccuracy of National Character Stereotypes.

Consensual stereotypes of some groups are relatively accurate, whereas others are not. Previous work suggesting that national character stereotypes are inaccurate has been criticized on several grounds. In this article we (a) provide arguments for the validity of assessed national mean trait levels as criteria for evaluating stereotype accuracy; and (b) report new data on national character in 26 cultures from descriptions (N=3,323) of the typical male or female adolescent, adult, or old person in each. The average ratings were internally consistent and converged with independent stereotypes of the typical culture member, but were weakly related to objective assessments of personality. We argue that this conclusion is consistent with the broader literature on the inaccuracy of national character stereotypes.

Stereotypes of age differences in personality traits: universal and accurate?

Age trajectories for personality traits are known to be similar across cultures. To address whether stereotypes of age groups reflect these age-related changes in personality, we asked participants in 26 countries (N = 3,323) to rate typical adolescents, adults, and old persons in their own country. Raters across nations tended to share similar beliefs about different age groups; adolescents were seen as impulsive, rebellious, undisciplined, preferring excitement and novelty, whereas old people were consistently considered lower on impulsivity, activity, antagonism, and Openness. These consensual age group stereotypes correlated strongly with published age differences on the five major dimensions of personality and most of 30 specific traits, using as criteria of accuracy both self-reports and observer ratings, different survey methodologies, and data from up to 50 nations. However, personal stereotypes were considerably less accurate, and consensual stereotypes tended to exaggerate differences across age groups.

Culture and the distinctiveness motive: constructing identity in individualistic and collectivistic contexts.

The motive to attain a distinctive identity is sometimes thought to be stronger in, or even specific to, those socialized into individualistic cultures. Using data from 4,751 participants in 21 cultural groups (18 nations and 3 regions), we tested this prediction against our alternative view that culture would moderate the ways in which people achieve feelings of distinctiveness, rather than influence the strength of their motivation to do so. We measured the distinctiveness motive using an indirect technique to avoid cultural response biases. Analyses showed that the distinctiveness motive was not weaker-and, if anything, was stronger-in more collectivistic nations. However, individualism-collectivism was found to moderate the ways in which feelings of distinctiveness were constructed: Distinctiveness was associated more closely with difference and separateness in more individualistic cultures and was associated more closely with social position in more collectivistic cultures. Multilevel analysis confirmed that it is the prevailing beliefs and values in an individual's context, rather than the individual's own beliefs and values, that account for these differences.

Differences between tight and loose cultures: a 33-nation study.

With data from 33 nations, we illustrate the differences between cultures that are tight (have many strong norms and a low tolerance of deviant behavior) versus loose (have weak social norms and a high tolerance of deviant behavior). Tightness-looseness is part of a complex, loosely integrated multilevel system that comprises distal ecological and historical threats (e.g., high population density, resource scarcity, a history of territorial conflict, and disease and environmental threats), broad versus narrow socialization in societal institutions (e.g., autocracy, media regulations), the strength of everyday recurring situations, and micro-level psychological affordances (e.g., prevention self-guides, high regulatory strength, need for structure). This research advances knowledge that can foster cross-cultural understanding in a world of increasing global interdependence and has implications for modeling cultural change.

The pharmacologic assessment of a novel lymphocyte function-associated antigen-1 antagonist (SAR 1118) for the treatment of keratoconjunctivitis sicca in dogs.

PURPOSE: Keratoconjunctivitis sicca (KCS) is characterized by inflammation and decreased production of tears containing increased levels of cytokines. The release occurs in the setting of conjunctival and lacrimal gland inflammation, potentially mediated by the interaction between lymphocyte function-associated antigen (LFA)-1, a cell surface protein found on lymphocytes, and its cognate ligand intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1. SAR 1118 is a novel LFA-1 antagonist and may be an effective therapeutic agent for the treatment of KCS. The following studies were performed to assess the in vitro activity of SAR 1118 and to evaluate the clinical efficacy of topical SAR 1118 for the treatment of idiopathic canine KCS. METHOD: Pharmacodynamics were assessed by measuring the ability of SAR 1118 to inhibit Jurkat T-cell binding with recombinant human ICAM-1 and to inhibit cytokine release from human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) stimulated by staphylococcal enterotoxin B. For the assessment of clinical efficacy, 10 dogs diagnosed with idiopathic KCS were treated with SAR 1118 1% topical ophthalmic solution three times daily for 12 weeks. Schirmer's tear test (STT) was used to measure tear production. RESULTS: SAR 1118 demonstrated concentration-dependent inhibition of Jurkat T-cell attachment, inhibition of lymphocyte activation, and release of inflammatory cytokines, particularly the Th1, Th2, and Th17 T-cell cytokines IFN-γ, IL-2, and IL-17F, respectively. Mean STT values increased from 3.4 mm during week 1 to 5.8 mm at week 12 (P < 0.025). No SAR 1118-related adverse events were observed. CONCLUSIONS: SAR 1118 appears to be an effective anti-inflammatory treatment for KCS. Additional studies are warranted to establish the efficacy of SAR 1118 for the treatment of KCS in humans.

Perceptions of aging across 26 cultures and their culture-level associates.

College students (N=3,435) in 26 cultures reported their perceptions of age-related changes in physical, cognitive, and socioemotional areas of functioning and rated societal views of aging within their culture. There was widespread cross-cultural consensus regarding the expected direction of aging trajectories with (a) perceived declines in societal views of aging, physical attractiveness, the ability to perform everyday tasks, and new learning; (b) perceived increases in wisdom, knowledge, and received respect; and (c) perceived stability in family authority and life satisfaction. Cross-cultural variations in aging perceptions were associated with culture-level indicators of population aging, education levels, values, and national character stereotypes. These associations were stronger for societal views on aging and perceptions of socioemotional changes than for perceptions of physical and cognitive changes. A consideration of culture-level variables also suggested that previously reported differences in aging perceptions between Asian and Western countries may be related to differences in population structure.

Primary care patients in the emergency department: who are they? A review of the definition of the 'primary care patient' in the emergency department.

OBJECTIVE: To review the definition of 'primary care' and 'inappropriate' patients in ED and develop a generally acceptable working definition of a 'primary care' presentation in ED. METHOD: A Medline review of articles on primary care in ED and the definitions used. RESULTS: A total of 34 reviewed papers contained a proposed definition or comment on the definition for potential 'primary care', 'general practice', or 'inappropriate' patients in ED. A representative definition was developed premised on the common factors in these papers: low urgency/acuity--triage categories four or five in the Australasian Triage Scale, self-referred--by definition, patients referred by general practitioner/community primary medical services are not primary care cases because a primary care service has referred them on, presenting for a new episode of care (i.e. not a planned return because planned returns are not self-referred), unlikely to be admitted (in the opinion of Emergency Nurse interviewers) or ultimately not admitted. DISCUSSION: This definition can be applied either prospectively or retrospectively, depending on the purpose. Appropriateness must be considered in light of a legitimate role for ED in primary care and the balance of resources between primary care and emergency medicine in local settings.

The antinociceptive effects of intrathecally administered cannabinoids are influenced by lipophilicity.

Previous research has demonstrated that intravenously administered cannabinoids produce potent antinociception in rodents. The present study examined the ability of 16 cannabinoid analogs to produce antinociception and hypothermia after intrathecal administration. Fifteen of the compounds tested produced significant increases in the tail-flick response to radiant heat. This effect was stereoselective because N-methyl-dextronantradol, the inactive stereo-isomer of the potent cannabinoid analog N-methyl-levonantradol, failed to elevate tail-flick latencies above baseline values. In general, the drugs tended to be more effective in producing hypothermia than antinociception. A positive correlation found between the ED50 values in producing antinociception and lipophilicity indicated that the most lipid-soluble drugs were the least active. In contrast, no apparent relationship between cannabinoid-induced hypothermia and lipophilicity was found. The finding that the antinociceptive effects of spinally administered cannabinoids is inversely related to lipophilicity is similar to that reported for the opiates.